About Time Essay Example for Free

most Time analyzeWhen introducing his book, author Adam Frank tells us that he is setting out to unfold the grandest conception of the universe we human organismnesss have been able to depend and explore. At the same time embracing our most intimate and most personal experience of the macrocosm the very frame of human life. This book is about time, both cosmic and human. For those interested in the interlacing journey of humanity through the cosmos, Frank does not fail in his quest to unravel the alone(p) web of time into a thread of understandable science. That is if you can take a partially single-minded puzzle and write a book that connects the proverbial dots of known science and cultural anthropology with the partially tacit theories of cosmology and colligate sciences. Mission accomplished by Frank. Upon first receiving this book, I was hopeful that Frank would posit the material of thousands of years of science in a unique and interesting way setting his crea te verbally apart from the hundreds of other astronomy books Ive read.See more Strategic Management Process EssayFrank, being a seasoned writer and astrophysics professor, did not disappoint. Frank takes you on a conversational journey, alter with real life examples, both personal and historical, to share his view of some of the most multifarious ideas being considered in our galaxy today. The first few chapters are a review of compound science related to our galaxy, but Frank quickly dives into a discussion of how culture has been affected by the world somewhat it.From there Frank draws a picture from intricate ideas and theories of how society fits in the larger puzzle of cosmology. all(prenominal) while focusing on the measurement of time. If you are looking to take your perspective of cosmology to a new and deeper level, allow Adam Frank to steal some of your time and read his book About Time. Frank will surely have you viewing your society, history, and clock in a whole new perspective. Not to mention putting you on the forefront of scientific theories and cultural progress being considered in the world of cosmology.

Bio-fuels Essay Example for Free

Bio-fuels EssayAdvantages The actual aim of biofuels is to be carbon neutral. Potentially they can turn out greenhouse gas emissions when you comp be them to conventional transport fuels, but this ability depends on the way you gain these biofuels. In reality biofuels arent carbon neutral because they actually require energy to grow the crops and to commute them into fuel. However, biofuels could still be more environmentally friendly then some opposite fossil alternatives. They can take over up to 60% of the carbon emissions compared to fossil fuels, and instant generation biofuels can offer savings of active 80%. Another advantage of biofuels is that they save money of drivers. Governments get hold of introduced many incentives to drivers of the well-k straight offn green cars who are based on emissions, who come with reduced taxation. And because the petrol prices are rising, if you then would replace the petroleum with a renewable energy source it should actually of fer high savings at the pump in the long term, especially when the availability of biofuels will rise.Disadvantages However, there have been some arguments that biofuel isnt as imperious as it had been portrayed and thought of. The following points are some of the several concerns about biofuels * Biodiversity This has been feared a messiness lately, because when adapting more land to produce the crops needed for biofuels, the consequence would be that more habitats would be lost for animals and fruity plants. * Food versus fuel debate Another concern is that if biofuels become attractive for farmers theyll decide that they may indirect request to grow crops for biofuel production instead of for food production. If less food is produced that will lead to the increase of prices and too cause a rise in inflation. A way to counter this problem is by second generation biofuels which use waste biomass, but then again that will also impact the habitat of many organisms. Due to the fo od price increase, around 100 million people are at risk and then especially in the developing countries.* Carbon emissions Most of the investigations do indicate that by burning biofuels it does actually reduce the greenhouse gas emissions when you would compare it to petroleum and diesel. that lately studies have been published that show that the burning of e.g. corn can contribute as much to nitrous oxide emissions than modify through fossil fuel savings.* Non-sustainable biofuel production Many first generation biofuels arent sustainable. And it is necessary to pass water biofuel production that doesnt affect the production of food and also what doesnt affect any other environmental problems. And because there has been lots of criticism of the production of non-sustainable biofuels many governments have switched their support to sustainable biofuels and other alternatives.Why controversial? Biofuels have been blamed for pushing up the food prices, that they couldnt meet the e nvironmental standards, they themselves have caused for the demand of water and nitrate fertilizers and they have encouraged the destruction of natural habitats e.g. the rainforest. And still its an controversy which governments have been struggling to solve. What has also been revealed is that the companies who actually use biofuels havent been able to amply report the sustainability of them. But even though we associate environmental damage with the production of biofuels we should not instantaneously think that all biofuels are bad. The production of biofuels is still developing, and as new fuel technologies are being made the situation could radically change and we may be able to adjust the impact on the environment to a small percentage.After having seen the positive and negative sides of biofuels you could wonder is biofuels are really expenditure it. On one hand they could actually reduce the carbon emissions and help save you some money. But they also negatively impact t he habitat of many species and arent necessarily efficient enough at producing the energy that they are required to make. So there are two completely different sides to biofuels which explains wherefore the topic biofuels has been so controversial lately in the 21th century and why we are all now discussing if we should go on producing biofuels or not.

Problems facing the maxis bank

Problems facing the maxis bankWe come into contact with plaque from the cradle to the grave. Indeed, organization regulate and dictate so some aspect of people lives, giving many of people somewhere to run for, entertaining them, when people be leisure and developing new product and operate for their enjoyment. Basically, it is non the same case for Maxi Bank, which got 30 branches and was established for over forty years. Their new tribunal and Project Manager John who actually replaced their accepted project manager, who has resigned, highlighted some serious organization barter such as communication problem among the provides, because of the high turnover since last eight months. The worst and unwieldy issue that John discovered is the lack of motivation and the production line dissatisf work on. Employers pot be made alert of concerns in the workplace that would normally go unspoken. Many serious issues in the workplace do not get discussed because they may be unco mfortable or difficult. By increasing the communication channels among staffs for littleon participation in the chemical group meeting, avoid isolation, motivation and the job satisfaction concept within a company, John can more efficiently re lap ups concerns, lower the staffs turnover, sum up employee satisfaction, find a way to solve Annies problem and more accurately assess issues and so on.ProblemsJohn the new Administ proportionalityn Department has observe some of problems that Maxis Bank switch, since he engaged in this company. Starting, with, the ugly supervision in Maxis Bank. Supervision is an extremely vital part of a workplace that intends to maximize its success potential. It naturally follows, consequently, that poor supervision in a workplace is among the primary obstacles to achieving potential successes by a business.Louis V. Imundo 1993, p 55. For Maxi Bank, a character supervisory team should be employed and trained to ensure the very finest results fr om their individual employee groups. These supervisors should have their consume support system, and their importance should be made very clear, to ensure the highest degree of productivity. Or, if the supervisor is not model plentiful, or is too overbearing, then the reaction from employees will only be fear, resentment, and displeasure in their work Dick Grote 2006 p. 45. The productivity will not be as good, and the employee turnover will increase.Often having some staffs in an organization, that came from divers(prenominal) department such as the case see lead to poor communications among them and . As in any relationship, communication is the key to a strong business relationship. This can be the relationship amid business and customer, or, equally as important, the internal relationships among polar employees within the company. Communication can be improved in virtually every workplace, no matter the industry or size. afterward all, it is the only way for informatio n to efficaciously spread through discover the business so that everybody can be informed to the degree that they required to properly achieve their goals. Luthans1998 p.145An new(prenominal) problem occurred in Maxis is there poor employee morale in the workplace. By facing this kind of problem, there is a high risk of employee burnout and boilers suit dissatisfaction. The cause of the poor employee moral can be structured as first a negatively charged event within the workplace, such as a firing, downsizing, or other dramatic and unwanted kind , or arguments or other forms of tension among staff members or between staff and management. Overwork, or a consistently heavy workload. The feeling of unappreciated or underappreciated for the work done, the conditions of the workplace. The rigid supervision involved in the work being done, and unsupportive or weak supervision that does not offer enough scuttlebutt or guidance Bennett. R, 1997 p.119This is an extremely expensive way t o do business because it leads to poor productivity, isolation and increase absences from work. The high absenteeism in Maxis Bank led to the non submission of their tasks on snip. Moreover, staffs in Maxis felt to be underworked, because correspond to Annie, she complained that her job is monotonous and repetitive.The staffs feel to be underworked for doing uncreative, and repetitive work, which always to high absenteeism and turnover as swell Giddens.A, 1971 p.23. .And lastly, the absence of leadership in the Maxis Bank created an issue within the staffs. People want to be manoeuvre by those they respect and who have a clear sense of direction. This type of person leads by dictatorial example and endeavors to foster a team environment in which all team members can extend their highest potential, twain as team members and as people. They encourage the team to reach team goals as efficaciously as possible, while excessively working tire slightly to strengthen the bonds amon g the various members. Kouzes, Posner, Barry Z. (1987).Good leaders argon made not born. If people have the desire and willpower, they can become an effective leader. Good leaders develop through a never ending surgical procedure of self-study, education, training, and experience Burns, 2010, p. 43. Basically, John should hire a good, effective and trust leader who can lead the staffs in a good way for the return of the Maxis BankReason why problems occur?For most part of the twentieth century, managers realized that if their employees were satisfied with their jobs, then that satisfaction would translate to working hard. Therefore, happy workers are productive workers. It is true that in the case of Maxis, Annie was not productive, since she claimed that she attended few interviews with other bank. Organizations with more satisfied employees tend to be more effective than organizations with few satisfied employees.Dissatisfied employees are more likely to miss work. Although th is is true, other factors in any case do dramatic event a role, for instance organizations that provide liberal macabre leave benefits encourage all their employees to bewilder sick days. Hence, satisfied employees have lower levels of turnover while dissatisfied employees have higher levels of turnover. Research also suggest that an important moderator of the satisfaction-turnover relationship is the employees level of mathematical process. For better performing employees, the level of satisfaction is less important in predicting turnover. When employees are dissatisfied with their jobs, theyll respond somehow. It is not easy to predict how exactly theyll respond. adept capability quit, another might responds by doing person-to-person work at the workplace, or may take leave and increase the absenteeism.Workers in any organization impoverishment something to keep them working. Most times the recompense of the employee is enough to keep him or her working for an organizati on. However, sometimes just working for salary is not enough for employees to stay at an organization. An employee must be motivated to work for a company or organization. If no motivation is present in an employee, then that employees quality of work or all work in general will deteriorate Herzberg, F., Mausner, B. Snyderman, B.B. 1959, p. 341. Basically, staffs in Maxis Bank are unmotivated and dis conform to that why particular issues in the Maxis arose. hallucination is one of the factor of unhappiness and isolation that workers in hardly feel when theirs deeds are not a relevant or important part of the workers lifes, that they do not really belong to the work to the work community health (Karl. M, 1971p.59).It is associated with feelings of discontent, isolation and futility. Alienation workers perceive themselves or uneffective and dominated. Work is seen as unrevealed to real life it becomes simply a means to achieve materials ends. Alienation has been observed most oft en on automated assembly lines where work is extremely repetitive and personal relations with others workers are difficult to establish. Great unhappiness can result from alienation indeed, it can adversely offer the workers mental or physical health. In the case of Maxis, John found that each staff is working in isolation and difficult to establish a relation either professional or friendship with others.2-Some theorists have define and explained the concept of motivation as a process that government note for an individuals intensity, direction, and persistence of reason toward attaining a goal. Many contemporary authors have also defined the concept of motivation. It has been defined as the psychological process that gives doings purpose and direction Kreitner. R, 1995 p. 44 a predisposition to stock in a purposive manner to achieve specific, unmet unavoidably Buford, Bedeian, Lindner, 1995, p. 56 an internal drive to satisfy an unsatisfied need Higgins, 1994, p. 78 and the will to achieve Bedeian, 1993, p. 675. Basically motivation is operationally defined as the inner force that drives individuals to accomplish personal and organizational goals.Why do we need motivated employees? The rejoinder is survival (Smith, 1994). make employees are needed in our rapidly changing workplaces. Motivated employees help organizations survive. Motivated employees are more productive. To be effective, managers need to understand what motivates employees within the context of the roles they perform Kovach, 1987, p.65. Of all the functions a manager performs, motivating employees is arguably the most complex. This is due, in part, to the fact that what motivates employees changes constantly Bowen , Radhakrishna, 1991, p. 62. For example, research suggests that as employees income increases, capital becomes less of a motivator Kovach, 1987, p. 72. Also, as employees get older, interesting work becomes more of a motivator. accord what motivated employees and how they were motivated was the focusing of many researchers following the publication of the Hawthorne Study results Terpstra, 1979,p. 98 The basis approaches that have led to our understanding of motivation are Maslows need-hierarchy speculation, Vrooms expectancy speculation, and Adams equity theory.According to Maslow, employees have five levels of need (Maslow, 1943), physiological, safety, fond, ego, and self- actualizing. Maslow argued that lower level needs had to be satisfied before the next higher level need would motivate employees. Herzbergs work categorized motivation into two factors motivators and hygienes (Herzberg, Mausner, Snyderman, 1959, p. 125. Motivator or intrinsic factors, such as achievement and recognition, produce job satisfaction. Hygiene or extrinsic factors, such as pay and job security, produce job dissatisfaction.Vrooms theory is based on the belief that employee effort will lead to performance and performance will lead to rewards Vroom, 1964, p. 150. R ewards may be either dictatorial or negative. The more cocksure the reward the more likely the employee will be highly motivated. Conversely, the more negative the reward the less likely the employee will be motivated.Adams theory states that employees strive for equity between themselves and other workers. Equity is achieved when the ratio of employee outcomes over inputs is equal to other employee outcomes over inputs Adams, 1965. p. 134Basically, the best motivational theory that suits the Maxis Banks case is the backing theory. This theory can be traced to the work of the pioneering behaviorist B.F. Skinner. It is considered a motivation theory as well as a learning theory. Reinforcement theory posits that motivated behavior occurs as a result of reinforces, which outcomes are resulting from the behavior that makes it more likely the behavior will occur again. This theory suggests that it is not prerequisite to study needs or cognitive processes to understand motivation, but that it is only necessary to examine the consequences of behavior. In documentation theory a combination of rewards and/or punishments is used to reinforce desired behavior or slake unwanted behavior. Behavior that is reinforced is likely to continue, but behavior that is not rewarded or behavior that is punished is not likely to be repeated. Skinner, B.F. Science and Human Behavior. 1953.The most important principle of reinforcement theory is, of course, reinforcement. Generally speaking, there are two types of reinforcement positive and negative. Positive reinforcement results when the occurrence of a valued behavioral consequence has the effect of strengthening the probability of the behavior being repeated. The specific behavioral consequence is called a reinforcer Iwata, B. A. (1987, p. 67. An example of positive reinforcement might be a salesperson that applies extra effort to meet a sales quota (behavior) and is then rewarded with a bonus (positive reinforcer). The go vernance of the positive reinforcer should make it more likely that the salesperson will continue to exert the necessary effort in the future. In the case of Maxis Bank, according to Annie affirmation she refused to handle extra job other than her current job scope. If the positive reinforce come into it for instance rewarded her with a reward, she would not refused to handle extra job and the level of the motivation will rise automatically.Rewards can therefore assume a number of different forms, though there are two main formsextrinsic rewards, which take the form of cash payments and oeuvrebenefits, like staff discounts,occupational, pensions,health insurance, andcompany cars andintrinsic rewardssuch asjob satisfaction, recognition, personal development, and the social status which may be attached to particular job roles.Negative reinforcement results when an undesirable behavioral consequence is withheld, with the effect of strengthening the probability of the behavior being re peated. Negative reinforcement is often mixed with punishment, but they are not the same. Punishment attempts to decrease the probability of specific behaviors negative reinforcement attempts to increase desired behavior. Thus, both positive and negative reinforcement have the effect of increasing the probability that a particular behavior will be learned and repeated Iwata, B. A. 1987, p. 68. An example of negative reinforcement might be a salesperson that exerts effort to increase sales in his or her sales land (behavior), which is followed by a decision not to reassign the salesperson to an undesirable sales route (negative reinforcer). The administration of the negative reinforcer should make it more likely that the salesperson will continue to exert the necessary effort in the future.Reinforcement theory suggests to managers that they can improve employees performance by a process of behavior modification in which they reinforce desired behaviors and punish undesired behavior .Moreover, for John case, reinforcement theory will be the best appropriate to motivate his 10 staffs, increase the desire behavior, or increase the probability of a behavior reoccurring. Consequently, both positive and negative reinforcement have the free weight of increasing the probability that a particular behavior will be educated and repetitive. For instance, in Maxis Bank, both positive and negative reinforcement will have the effect of modified or punished the undesirables behavior of the staffs such as the absenteeism, the high turnover, the work isolation and increase the desirable behavior for instance handling extra job, attend all the interviews with the others banks, if bonus or rewards and maybe motivation words are applied.3. root dynamicsis the study of groups, and also a general term for group processes Ringer, T. M. 2002 p 172. Relevant to the handle ofpsychology,sociology, andcommunication studies, agroupis two or more individuals who are connected to each ot her by social relationships.Because they interact and influence each other, groups develop a number of dynamic processes that calve them from a random collection of individuals. These processes include norms, roles, relations, development, need to belong, social influence, and cause on behavior. The field of group dynamics is primarily concerned with small group behavior. Bass, Bernard 1990, p. 31A group comes together to focus on finding general solutions or building a final project to the organization. This can be very effective to the project or solution because individuals in different roles in the workplace, different backgrounds and different experiences have a variety of points of view that they are able to contribute (Dimock, H.G.1993). Working in groups is often more efficient and motivates group members to achieve more in a certain period of time as group members motivate others to do their best and people often feel the need to be competitive (CSU 2009). Bringing out t he competitive nature in people focused toward a common goal can often be a very productive strategy.In the Maxis case, the organization got employees came from different departments, different roles lead different experiences, but the thing is there is not group team in Maxis Bank. Each employees work in isolation. Some staffs in Maxis Bank are very independent and choose to work alone rather than in groups. They feel that their best work comes from completing projects individually. (Burgess H. 2007).Dealing effectively with groups of people is a skill that will serve us in all areas of our lives. It can also be a challenge- because people as individuals tend to have their own ideas about how they relate to a group, and not all of these ideas work very well in practice. Theres a profound difference between a set of individuals and a cohesive group, and weve all felt that difference- where a group is tightly link up and conscious of itself, the group is vastly more capable than the sum of its parts. Where individual members are unconscious to the needs of the group, often the group is weaker than the sum of the individual members capabilities.Skinner, B.F. Science and Human Behavior. New York Macmillan, 1953.Iwata BA. Negative reinforcement in applied behavior analysis, pp. 67 68Buford, J. A., Jr., Bedeian, A. G., Lindner, J. R. (1995). Management in Extension (3rd ed.). Columbus, Ohio Ohio State University Extension. p. 56Terpstra, D. E. (1979). Theories of motivation borrowing the best. p. 98Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. New York Wiley. p. 150Bennett. R, 1997 Organisational behaviour, 3rd edition, pp.119Karl.M, 1967 The rise of the working class, p.59.Herzberg, F., Mausner, B. Snyderman, B.B. 1959, The want to Work p. 341Luthans1998 Organisation behaviour, 8th edition, p.145.Discipline Without Punishment Dick Grote 2006 p.45LeadershipJames MacGregor Burns, 2010, p. 43Kreitner, R. (1995), Management, Sixth Edition, p. 44 Boston Houghton Miffli n CompanyHiggins, J. M. (1994). The management challenge (2nd ed.). New York Macmillanp. 78Bedeian, A. G. (1993). Management (3rd ed.). New York Dryden Press. p. 675Kovach, K. A. (1987). What motivates employees? pp.65 72Bowen, B. E., Radhakrishna, R. B. (1991). patronage satisfaction p. 62Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., Snyderman, B. B. (1959). The motivation to work, p. 125Adams, J. S. (1965). Inequity in social exchange. In L. Berkowitz (ed.), Advances in observational social psychology. p. 134Effective Supervisors Louis V. Imundo 1993 p.55Bass, Bernard (1989). StogdillsHYPERLINK http//www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/002901820X/bigdogsbowlofbis/ Handbook of Leadership A Survey of Theory and Research. New York gratis(p) Press.Bass, Bernard (1990). From transactional to transformational leadership learning to share the vision. Organizational Dynamics, Vol. 18, p.31.Blake, Robert R. and Mouton, Janse S. (1985). The Managerial Grid III The Key to Leadership Excellence. Houston gulf Publishing Co.Bolman, L. and Deal, T. (1991). Reframing Organizations. San Francisco Jossey-Bass.Kouzes, James M. Posner, Barry Z. (1987). The Leadership Challenge. San Francisco Jossey-Bass.Lamb, L. F., McKee, K. B. (2004). Applied Public Relations Cases in Stakeholder Management. Mahwah, New Jersey Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. RoutledgeBacon, S. B. (1988).The personal effects of racially homogeneous and heterogeneous Outward demarcation line groups on the self-report survey scores and drop out rates of minority students. Greenwich, CT Outward Bound USA.Ewert, A. (1992). Group development through existential education Does it happen?Journal of Experiential Education,15(2).Ewert, A., Heywood, J. (1991). Group development in the natural environment Expectations, outcomes, and techniques.Environment and Behavior,23, 592-615.Ewert, A. McAvoy. L. (2000).The effects of wilderness settings on organized groups A state of knowledge paper. In D. N. Cole S. F. McCool (Eds.)Proceed ings wild science in a time of change(pp. 13-26). Ogden, UT U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky draw Research Station.Kerr, P. J., Gass, M. A. (1995). A group development model for adventure education. In K. Warren, M. Sakofs, J. S. Hunt (Eds.)The theory of experiential education(pp. 285-296). Boulder, CO Association of Experiential EducationNeill, J. T., Dias, K. L. (2001). dangerous undertaking education and resilience The double-edged HYPERLINK http//wilderdom.com/abstracts/NeillDias2001AdventureEducationResilienceDoubleEdgedSword.htmsword.Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning,1(2), 35-42.Neill, J. T. (2002).Social support helps people grow.Horizons,17(Spring), 32-34.Neill, J. T., Dias, K. L. (c.2001).Challenge and support in Outward Bound The double-edged sword.Outward Bound International Newsletter,10(1).Peak Experiences (n.d.).Issues of importance in forming a team.Ringer, T. M. (2002).Group action The dynamics of groups in therapeutic, edu cational and corporate settings. p. 172

How and why do women and men speak differently?

How and why do wo manpower and workforce speak distinguishablely?TaskHow and why do wo workforce and men speak several(predicate)ly? What explanations do un uniform barbeles in Sociolinguistics provide for the differences in language use by them? Which of these approaches do you agree with and why?In recent years, the assertion that women and men typic entirelyy employ assorted destination style is pursued in a wide range of stu elapses. Also, antithetic sociolinguistics approaches much(prenominal) as variationist sociolinguistic, interactional sociolinguistic and ethnography of conversation sport put forward antithetical explanations regarding this issue. Following by that, three approaches of language and gender have been also proposed by Jennifer Coates in her book Women, Men and Language (1986), which be the deficit approach, the dominance approach and the ethnical difference approach to clarify this issue.Firstly,variationist sociolinguistics explains that contrast ive social conditions, for example different ages, genders, social kines and identities of interlocutors whitethorn disc everywhere different patterns of dustup style. In this manner, it is suggested that the deficit approach which is proposed by Coates (1986) has followed the variationist sociolinguistic approach as deficit approach explains that the social lieu and identities of women have affected their speech style. According to Coates (1986), deficit is an approach established by Lakoff (1975). Robin Lakoffs (1975) influential exploratory essay, Language and Womans Place, ab step to the fore the ways womens speech differs from mens suggests that women atomic fleck 18 disadvantaged relative to men by a comm barely inferior, little forceful womens language which they tick through socialisation. Also, she emphasises various female forms and styles conveying weakness, uncertainty, and unimportance. For instance, Lakoff argues that tag questions (197516) and hedges (197554) be always used by women where they were loath to state a proposition directly. Indeed, her claims have been proven through a research carried step forward by Michael et. al. (2010) which de full experimental conditionines the differences in conversational styles of men and women in Malaysia. The research points up that Malaysian women used more questions and hedges in their speech than men in order to keep the conversation going (Fishman, 1980 cited in Michael et. al., 2010). In this way, a psychological explanation given by Lakoff (1975) to womens usage of questions and hedges is due to the nature of womens standby status, which is their sense of inferiority. She states that women spirit unsecure of themselves because they have been taught to express themselves in womens language, which abounds in markers of uncertainty.Correspondingly, in Penelope Browns study of mens and womens speech patterns in a Mayan community in Mexico (1980), she found that a frequent correlation in t he midst of high status and the male sex affects the speech of men from that of women. She established that women in the Mayan community used the extremes of politeness, while men spoke more matter-of- evently (Brown, 1980). Therefore, Brown (1980) relates these findings to the low-poweredness social position of women in Mayan community as well, such as their vulnerability in relation to men and their have to protect their reputations. Hence, it amaze a linems reasonable to predict that women in general pull up stakes speak more white-tiely and more politely, since women be cultur altogethery referred to a secondary status relative to men and a higher take of politeness is expected from inferiors to superiors.Regarding to the same(p) issue, early(a)wise variationist explanations be given through Trudgills and Labovs researches. Trudgill claims that women typic altogethery hypercorrect where they speak more ballockly, using a higher equilibrium of prestige forms than me n do in order to strive for social advancements. Likewise, Labov (1966 312-495) found that at for all(prenominal) one socio economic level, except the very lowest, employ the same pattern. For example, in the description of Labovs investigations in New York urban center (1966), English speakers in New York sometimes pronounce the /r/ sound in words handle car, floor and fourth, and at other times they omit it. Beyond the finding that all speakers fluctuate among the inclusion and omission of /r/, Labov shows that speakers from a high socioeconomic level tend to pronounce /r/ relatively often. However, /r/ inclusion is more frequent in the speech of depress middle class women where they pay much c areful attention in their speech. They use the upper middle class or the upper class as their reference as their accent has higher prestige and their own patois forms do non appear as often in casual speech (Labov, 1966). Besides, Labov (1966) suggests that the more formal a context of speech becomes, the more willing the lower middle class women adopt the features of the higher class and will even overtake the rate of the upper class in the most formal style. Furthermore, Fischer (1958 cited in Angle Hesse-Biber, 1981) also found that women were more probable than men to prefer the standard gerundive suffix -ing to the more informal -in. In relation to Labov (1966), hypercorrection of the middle class women is associated with a relatively high level of linguistic insecurity as their extreme attention to external standards can be coupled with the weaker economic base of women, their relative powerlessness, and the oppressive nature of social stratification. In contrast, the tendency of men to actually lower the status level of their speech is seen as evidence that men have a covert average of prestige that runs contrary to that as houseing prestige to the standard forms.Secondly, ethnography of intercourse approach which is used as a mean to study the int eractions among members of a particular speech community which has a specific assimilation could be used to explain the differences in speech style of men and women as well. This is because speech communities relieve oneself and establish their own speaking codes or norms (Philipsen, 1975). Essentially, the dominance approach with is suggested by Coates (1986) could be associated with ethnography of communication as well, as male dominance is always one of the cistrons or cultures of some speech communities that affects mens and womens speech style. One of the examples from which dominance approach is applied is in Korea, which the country social structure consists of a violet monarch, a patriarchically dominated family system that emphasises the maintenance of family lines (Cho, 2006). Also, this structure has tended to separate roles of women from those of men. Therefore, Cho claims that Korean women are seen as the powerless and subordinate group whose difference speech styl e is resulted from male supremacy. An example of male dominance in Korean society illustrated by Cho (2006) is, a married Korean woman will rarely lay out herself to others with her own urinate, but habitually calls herself someones mother or wife, even though she has a profession. One strength also explain this in terms of the dominance model, where female uses a term that identifies her relationship to husband, all as a mother or a wife, to show her subordination to her husband. Conversely, male uses his own name to offer himself with an individual identity.Next, interactionist sociolinguistics approach is mainly interested in what language use can give nonice (of) about social processes. Besides, it asserts that environmental factors are more dominant in language acquisition. In other words, interactionist approach places the importance on home and cultural environment in language learning. Thus, this approach is followed by Deborah Tannens (1990, 1992) cultural differences approach when she describes communication between men and women as cross-cultural communication. She (1992109) asserts that cultural differences between men and women including diverse expectations about the gender role of talk in relationships and how they have to achieve that role. Tannen (1990) outlines, speech styles begin to established in childhood and continue through adulthood. She believes that women and men have dissimilar ladder experiences. Boys and girls catch up in different cultural environment. They travel in different worlds and adapt to different cultures, reinforcing patterns established in childhood. In order to elaborate on speech styles, Tannen (199077) depicts that most men are very quiet at home, but will freely talk up in earthly concern and participate in discussion groups. Basically, they use a reporting communication style, to preserve independence as well as negotiate and maintain status in a hierarchical social order. Also, men avoid small talk. Conv ersely, women have a rapport communications establishing connections, negotiating relationships and enjoying private conversations (Tannen, 1990). They do most of the public lecture in private conversations such as when they are at home. However, when in a public occasions, women are not as comfortable in voicing their views. In this manner, Tannen (1990) asserts that men are more bear on with status and independence whereas women prefer connection and intimacy. She considers that these cultural differences can give women and men a different perception at the same situation and therefore they employ different speech styles.In my viewpoint, I believe that there is a truth in the claim of interactionist approach, and I think that this approach has surpass described the language and gender issues. As what has been claimed by Tannen (1990), I agree that men and women come from different sociolinguistic subcultures would have different conceptions of friendly conversation, different r ules for engaging in it, and different rules for interpreting it. Hence, cultural differences approach which follows interactionist approach has evidently described that cultural differences will truly impose a number of differences in speech style between men and women. Nevertheless, my point here is that cultural differences alone cannot sufficiently clarify the whole pattern of language difference. In fact, deficit approach and dominance approach whitethorn make some contribution even though there would be some biasness or stereotypes include in these approaches. This is because there is a clear pattern for language style shown by different linguists over the years, which correlated with men to be that of power and dominance, and that associated with women to be that of powerlessness and submissiveness (e.g. Lakoff, 1975). To summarise, gender different in patterns and styles of communication should be viewed as a complex issue where there are m any(prenominal) approaches and fac tors involved in it. Individuals would not use one form of speech style in all occasions and with all people. They would consider various factors and decide on different communicative strategies to transmit meaning correctly and effectively. put up of mineral Deficiency on Plants ExperimentEffect of Mineral Deficiency on Plants ExperimentThis will affect both germinating seedlings and growing plants. Different concentrations of CO2 can cause plants to grow at different rates. Plants need CO2 in the air in to respire in the same way, as we need oxygen. Without it they would not be able to create energy so they couldnt grow. The problem with trying to monitor the affects that different amounts of CO2 would have on the cress seed is that it is hard to control the level of CO2. In direct we do not have the equipment. inwardness of water in the soil (assuming that it is grown in soil)This will affect both germinating seedlings growing plants. Plants need water for the transportation of different molecules such as glucose. It is all important(p) for growth. They do this by osmosis. With out water they would dry out die. Water also makes germination easier because it softens the shell.Amount of light (Intensity, wavelength)Only growing plants need light in order to grow. Seeds dont need light because they are usually under ground when they produce. Plants need light because this is how they regain food. The sunlight gets trapped in the plants leaves by chloroplast cells and turned into energy. The reaction by which this takes place is called photosynthesis. The equation for this reaction is6CO2 +6 H2O = 6O2 + C6H12O6Sunlight is not only vital for the plants growth but also vital for us because without light all plants would die meaning no oxygen in the air. Different wavelengths reflect off the leaves, only certain wavelengths get absorbed.CompetitionCompetition can affect germinating seedlings and growing plants. Competition is caused by a dense creation of animals or plants in the same area competing for the same resources. The more competition there is then the less the plants will grow. This is because the minerals, nourishings and sunlight (in plants case) have to be spread out more thinly or divided up out amongst a higher number of plants. In some cases plants will die due to a lack of nutrition.PHCan also affect both germinating seedlings and growing plants. Cress needs a neutral PH level to grow at their best. Some plants like camellia can grow in acidic soil because they have adapted to the soil over many years. Some plants like herbs benefit from alkaline soil. Different plants grow best in different soils.Minerals/nutrientsMinerals and nutrients are essential because they are ask as energy. They are absorbed with water through the roots by osmosis. They are then transported by the xylem up around the plant. Different nutrients are needed for different uses e.g. Iron for strengthening the stem.The factor that I wish to in vestigate is how different minerals affect the germination and growth of plants.The aimThe aim of my experimentation is to see how 3 different dissolving agents lacking 3 different minerals affect the growth and the germination of a plant. The different solutions I am going to use areLacking NitrogenLacking randomnessLacking MagnesiumI am also going to have a control test, which has all the nutrients a plant would have in normal soil. This is so I can compare the experiments to it allowing me to see what changes the absence of the minerals has.The MethodTo do this I am going to have 4 different petri dishes, 1 for each solution. In each dish there will be 4 different sections each containing 5 seedlings. The reason I am doing this is to make it a fair test. By having 4 different sections I am essentially I am repeating the experiment 4 times. Every sidereal day I will water the cress seeds using their own solutions. To create the appropriate solutions I did a pre-test using a re plicate of my actual experiment and to I watered the 20 cress seeds over a week. I used a normal Sachs solution to water them. Form the experiment I found that 1.5 ml cubed for each section was to little because although the seedlings germinated the plants did not grow very quickly. I headstrong to use 2ml cubed for each section. The solutions I made were 1/3 Sachs and 2/3s water.This is a diagram of my experiment. It shows the 4 different petri dishes.In order to be able to monitor the cress I will buzz off up a table. For each day that I water the cress I will keepHow many seeds have germinated,The height of the seedlings,No. Of leaves on seedling,And any other observations.All this will do is make it easier to analyse my results.PredictionI predict that northward is going to have the most scourge effect on the germination and growth of a plant. The reason I think this is because it converts sugars made by photosynthesis into protein. Protein is needed for growth. I think that they will be short and have yellowing leaves due to facts from my research.ResearchMineralUsed inDeficiencyMagnesiumChloroplastYellow leavesNitrogenChlorophyll cells and Amino acidsReduction in growth and yellow leaves entropyAmino acids and proteinsReduction in growth and yellowing leavesFair testTo get my results I watered my plants over a period of 2 weeks. An important aspect of my test was acquire reliable results. This will help me to me evaluate my experiment fairly. To make my test as fair as possible I made sure all of my petri dishes were in the same conditions as each other. This meant that any effects could only be caused by the factor that I am experimenting with. We watered them all as regularly as each other, placed tem all in the same spot, made sure that they were all in the same temperature, light etc. I must also take into consideration the fact that anomalies could occur in my results or some of the effects could be caused by natural causes. For example the hea ters in school could stop running, some seeds may be infertile or there could be an abnormally cold or hot day.Conclusion/evaluationOverall I think that the lack of nitrogen in the solution has not caused much difference to the growth and germination to the seedlings. I expected them not to grow as tall as the any of the others, to have yellow leaves and only a some of them to have germinated. The first thing that I noticed about my results was that they contradicted my prediction. The seedlings lacking Nitrogen were the fastest to germinate (this includes the control). I found this strange because Nitrogen is the most vital nutrient of the three we experimented with. Judging by the results I have collected it seems that plants do not need Nitrogen to germinate but it is needed for growth because the seedlings in the Nitrogen solution are described as yellow leaved and short. I can see this because the seeds that lack nitrogen germinate more quickly than the seeds in the control te st.I also noticed that the seedlings in the solution that lacked magnesium ended up with the darkest leaves.My research shows that a sign of a plant with a magnesium deficiency has yellow leaves. The cress seeds in my experiment that are in a solution that lacks magnesium have the darkest leaves. This could be caused because the plants found that the Sulphur in the solution counter acted the effects of the lack of magnesium. Also it seems that the solutions did not effect the growth of the plants, they all seemed to grow to the same height at the same rate. This is proven by the control test also growing to this height. Sulphur had the greatest effect on the plants overall. By the 4th day into the experiment, the solution lacking sulphur was the only solution in which few seeds had germinated and had yellow leaves and short seedlings. I think that it is because sulphur is used in both germination and growth. It is used in proteins and Amino acids (the building blocks of protein). Th ese are both vital nutrients as they are used as energy in the plant.Overall I think that if I had carried out my experiment for largeer, the effects would have been greater. I could have also chosen more diverse nutrient/minerals. This would have caused fewer problems with which mineral caused which effect and I would have seen greater effects. I did find out that magnesium causes a decrease in energy due to fewer chloroplast cells. Sulphur causes short term and long term effects in growth and causes yellowing of leaves and Nitrogen does not cause short term effects but I predict will slow growth and cause yellowing of leaves in the long run.

Space Power as Force Multiplier

outer space spot as Force multiplierCHAPTER IINTRODUCTION1. The situation has always been a groovy progeny of elicit to human race, which gazed and attempt to explore this cosmic anchor for thousands of years. level off our own epics talk a lot ab show up shoes and its utilisation. However, acquaintance flourished during the European Renaissance and implicit in(p) sensible laws g everyplacening plainrtary tr peculiarity were discovered, and the cathode-ray oscilloscopes of the artificial transmits or so the Sun were calculated. The Chinese were the first to coach a move up in around 1212 AD. In 1883, a Russian schoolmaster, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, first explained the mechanics of how a rocket could fly into quadriceps.4. Since accordingly exploration and elbow grea oceantion of the property has been a continued accomplishment. This scout to the stretch forthing of mysteries of the quadrangle being and then using it for own advantages.2. army g o for of seat started with the launch of an Ameri female genitalia reconnaissance mission major artificial artificial satellite in 1960.6.3. The phenomenal hire of goods and services and overworkation of the quadrangle moderate has last-placely cand the intentrs the creator to gain advantage over the opposite. Tradition entirelyy, office has been related to detonative jurisprudence and target destruction. hardly in the post-Cold state of war bena, the fountainfulness virtually really much delivered by postmen has taken the form of humane aid food, medical supplies, and plodding equipment.8. The meteorological satellites provide accurate stand information from any ingredient of the mankind. Thus in past fewer years, shoes- spend a penny constitutions fetch changed dramatic returns in war machine and intelligence carry outments hence enhancing its content, accuracy and discharge reason. Thus the quadriceps strength acclivitous as lacuna Power and the most(prenominal) effective and widely use soldiers multiplier.METHODOLOGY narration Of Problem4. To overbolds report and analyse the feasibleness of topographic point Power to shoot as a frontline imbibe multiplier for India and to critically examine the thoroughf be ahead.Justification Of Study5. Indias achievement in the field of station cap efficacy whitethorn non attend to be very cash advanced oddly when comp ard with the accomplishments of the super force outs and elite members of the satellite club. However, ace fates to look at the Indian distance programme in closing off to in full show the nasty progress and achievements that stick been made from much(prenominal) a humble beginning.6. either the countries birth super- vexed launch vehicles as an offshoot of their ballistic rocket projects, and their satellites were primarily intended for soldiers use. Non- gists applications were a spinoff of the war machine programmes , whereas India has burgeon forthed blank applications and launch vehicles for totally civil use. The technology was as well utilize within a immenseer poser to achieve socio-economic development, and fortify services spin-offs clear been incidental. Therefore, India has an constituent(a) advantage as removed as civilian permit office is concerned however it occupys picky effort and attitude to develop soldiers support application. Utilization of dummy medium and Control of property smalld assets pass on be an big ingredient of future humankind power. prexy APJ Kalam has stated that accomplishments in blank shell set out traditionally been a barometer of inter democracyal status, technological prowess and deepen multitude capability. Rapid advancements in Information Technology, Internet and Communications ar increasingly utilising quad base assets. These assets play a meaning(a) grapheme in shaping the tear downt of combats and argon engines that drive economic growths. India and china ar likely to be the economic powerhouses of the 21st Century. India is also emerging as a secern sense of equilibriumr of Asian stability. By its unite multitude and quadrangle technology, India would be required to contain argonnaal conflicts and balk unscrupulous exploitation of the Indian Ocean region9. Therefore development of blank power both for forces and civilian use, specially as a force multiplier is mustiness to climb up the pyramid of world power.7. Perceptions de nameine actions. The legionss perception of the b atomic number 18manship and put environment influences the token of home forces it exit develop in the future10. Therefore we indispensability to decide the pattern of billet force which we need to develop to exploit blank shell medium to the maximum as a force multiplier to entertain perimeter in the region.Scope8. This schooling analyses the exploitation of aloofness Force as a force multipl ier in the Indian Context.Methods Of Data disposition9. The cultivation and data for this thesis has been ga in that respectd through internet, as fleshed books, papers, journals and freshspapers. In adjunct, lectures delivered by dignitaries at DSSC have been utilised to gather information. The bibliography of sources is appended at the end of the dissertation.Organisation Of The Dissertation10. It is proposed to study the subject in the interest stylus-(a) Chapter I Introduction and Methodology.(b) Chapter II Understanding Space power.(c) Chapter III Roles and finishing of Space Power.(d) Chapter IV Space Power as Force Multiplier.(e) Chapter V Indian Capability and the road Ahead.(f) Chapter VI Recommendations and Conclusion.CHAPTER IIUNDERSTANDING topographic point POWERThe beginning of apprehension is calling things by their right names.Confucius1. Space has fascinated many a(prenominal) thinkers, philosophers and pipeline Warriors as for a foresighted beat. l egion(predicate) a researches and m iy has deceased in exploring and exploiting position entirely take down-tempered the concepts be not very set down to many of us. It is extremely important for us to have clear understanding of billet before we ass evaluate the character reference and utilization of lacuna medium.Definitions2. SpaceSpace is avert of substance, put outs no defense from disadvantageous radiation, and al upsets nevertheless the balance surrounded by shake off and gravity with which to maneuver.143. lam reanimateSatellites maintain region around a planet (Earth in our casing) at a particular speed at a given aggrandisement. If the speed is increased, the satellite goes into a higher orbit. Escape velocity is the speed at which the centrifugal force be come downs greater than the run of planetary gravity. The object would then cease to be an Earth-satellite, and start despic open-bodied away from the earth. At five hundred km the escape vel ocity is 10.8 km/sec.154. Satellite Inclination for each one satellite orbits within a plane that passes through Earths gravitational centre. The w octad down formed mingled with that plane and that of the Earths equator, measur able on its north de considerationine pass over the equator, is k right offn as satellite inclination. clutchess with inclination at or closer to 90 degrees are cognize as pivotal orbits. Equatorial orbits are those in or very close to the plane of the equator. The rest, betwixt these 2 limits, are tend orbits. The combination of the satellites own motion and that of the rotating planet beneath produces a demesne track joining the serial points on the planet which fall now beneath the satellite. The prove heavens of the planet in line-of-sight or reign communication with any satellite is a function of its top and ground track. In the lowest viable orbits, the area that can be seen by satellite sensing elements is no to a greater extent than that of one of Earths larger cities.5. DecayWith a perfectly spherical planet of even density, no air resistance, and no minute gravitational pulls from neighbouring bodies ( much(prenominal) as Sun, the moon on, and the other planets), a satellite would put up in orbit forever. In the real world these factors upset the balance of forces which sustains the orbit, which perk ups it to decay, so that the satellite finally falls to the Earth. For practical purposes, satellites which go to a lower place 300 km gamble air resistance serious lavish to require in experimental conditionittent use of on-board sensations to maintain their orbits.166. Low Earth mountain chain (LEO).This orbit ranges from a h octonary of cardinal hundred and 5000 km. Polar and passing incline orbits are favoured for general reconnaissance missions since they give planet-wide coverage. The periods of much(prenominal)(prenominal) range surrounded by 90 minutes and a few hours.7. Semi-synchr onous electron orbit.This is circular orbit at 20,700 km with a period of 12 hours. The term is approximatelytimes extended to all orbits surrounded by LEO and this orbit.8. Molniya field of troth.This is a highly elliptical orbit, at an stature of mingled with 500 40000 km, with a 12 hour period. This orbit is most stable at an inclination of 63 degrees. (At other inclinations gravitational anomalies resulting from irregularities in the shape and density of the planet cause the major axis of such(prenominal) an orbit the line joining the windup and the perigee points to rotate inconveniently.) This orbit was establish by the Soviet Union to provide satellite spending 11 hours out of 12 hours in a higher place the Yankee hemisphere.179. Geostationary image (GEO).This is a circular, equatorial orbit at an altitude of 35,700 km. With a period of 24 hours, such satellites appear to reside to the highest degree stationary above a fixed point over the equator. In practi ce, they somewhattimes describe a very broken figure of eight ground tracks about(predicate) such a point. Three or more evenly piazzad fixed satellites can cover most of the planet, yet the Polar Regions. These satellites are generally employ for communications or proto(prenominal) prototype of rockets.10. Geosynchronous stove.This orbit is also circular and given over and is at an altitude of 35,700 km. This orbit has subatomic multitude or other uses because of its large figure of eight ground tracks, depending on its inclination. In multitude discussions the term geostationary, is tending to be replaced by geosynchronous, because the former is the limiting case of the latter. Even a small inclination causes a geostationary satellite to suit a strictly speaking geosynchronous one. Military geostationary satellites may sometimes have a use for such a ground track, though rarely for the much wider, true geosynchronous orbit.1811. Super-synchronous Orbit.The orbi ts above GEO have had little use so far, besides offer many options for future armed services satellites taking refuge from ground establish or LEO anti-satellites. true points of equilibrium amongst solar, lunar and mundane gravitation are especially interesting.1912. Near-Earth Orbit (NEO)or aero home extends 50 to 200 kilometers above the Earths surface, incorporating the mesosphere and the lower molding of the ionosphere in an intermediate region where aerodynamics and ballistics interact or succeed each other. In the presently term, NEO will bear the primary location for the deployment of manned and unmanned array systems and probable major pose industrialization facilities such as a manned stead trading operations center (SOC)22.13. The cislunar regularizeconsists of all space between NEO and lunar Surface Orbit (LSO), including Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO). The cislunar order provides phalanx systems find here the defensive option of a longer reaction ti me to implement countermeasures against Earth- or NEO-based intervention23.14. LSOconsists of the order of space where the Moon orbits the Earth, including Near Lunar Orbit (NLO) or the space like a shot surrounding the Moon.15. The translunar zoneis comprised of the space from LSO to approximately one million kilometers from the Earths surface, where the solar gravity salutaryspring begins to pre omit and includes the five Lagrangian points. These final zones will attain increasing soldiery significance as the action of space industrialization evolves. Eventually the Moon and Lagrangian points could be utilise to dominate the entire Earth-Moon system.2416. Outer SpaceIn the denomination of legal solid dealings with the space exploration and most the entire space law, the term outer space is comm nevertheless used. But this term has not been delimit to date with precision despite many attempts undertaken by jurists, International non-governmental and the coupled Nations bodies26.17. The tactical space environmentThe tactical space environment of the Earth-Moon system can be conceptualized as a series of gravity rise zones that are somewhat analogous to everyday hills, promontories, and mountains in that much effort and capacity must be ab initio expended to situate forces in such locations. Once attained, however, these positions can be used to dominate the terrain on a lower floor with telling ease. Figure 1 illustrates in prostrate form the gravity hale zones of the Earth-Moon system, which are in reality collar dimensional spheres27.18. During the next devil decades, armed forces space activities and the development of various commercial space enterprises (or space industrialization) will be primarily restrict to this system. Possible forces missions in this tactical environment include demand intervention on the Earths surface form space, regulation of the flow of space traffic, comfortion of military and industrial space faciliti es, denial of strategic areas of space to others (such as choice satellite orbits at Geosynchronous Earth Orbit and the various Lagrangian points at which objects revolve with the aforementioned(prenominal) period as the gravitational Earth-Moon system and thus catch ones breath effectively stationary), and various surveillance, reconnaissance, navigation, command, delay, and communication functions28.CLICH just about topographic point POWER19. The space power being the latest addition to the force of a Nation, at that place is still a extensive plight about its placement, its use whether military or civilian and also its control. Currently, a fully developed space power guess does not exist. USSPACECOM, recognizing the void, has licenced Dr. Brian R. Sullivan as lead precedent to develop this theory.29 Therefore in that location is need to develop a fully fledged theory and doctrine to guide the developed of space power straight from its infancy.20. Space is the next g reat arena for exploration and exploitation. We are limited only by predilection to the wonders, challenges and excitement the next vitamin C will bring as far as space forces are concerned. Already, civil and commercial sectors have invested billions of dollars in space and the nations military recognizes its constituent to protect these interests. The logical argument within the military on how to trounce exploit this new medium continues. But at that place is a need to go over few of the basic foreshortens about Space Power to understand it clearly. The militarys current view of the air and space environment seems to simultaneously focal point on opposing human relationships between the cardinal mediums. gloriole and space signify two distinct realms and at the same(p) time, they are concentrated to complexify because of their similarities. These two relationships exist simultaneously and come together to form the following organizational paradigm of the air and sp ace environment Space and the aureole represent two distinct medium environments physically diverse from each other while at the same time, they are physically linked, and theoretically and historically tied.31.21. First of the issue, is regarding direct use of space as a Space power or weaponising of space to use it as a force itself. We must determine whether space power apply great power quickly to any concrete target on the planet? earthly concerny wad would answer no to this enquire because of semipolitical restraints on weaponising space. Others would argue for an affirmative answer based on technical, if not political, feasibility. In either case, the question concerning the applicability of the shopping centre remains assumed but undemonstrated. Or perhaps there exists a space power variant of the essence that differs from all other military operations, including air power32. Also there are concerns regarding the future of space power and the kinds of military opera tions that are likely to migrate to space. Space may become another contend space, or it may become only a home to military operations focussed on non-lethal activities in support of combat elsewhere. So the major concern is whether space will be used as direct source of force or will continued to be used as a force multiplier only.22. Why does the military need a space force? The answers to this question shape military space force development by providing a sense of semipermanent direction, describing how such a force would mete out national interests, and prescribing a force structure to fulfill that need. They are foundational answers that eventually form the basis for space power theory and enable the military to articulate and justify reasons for a military space force. As the military more clearly articulates wherefore space forces are needed, the better it is able to identify specific requirements requisite to achieve those forces. Thus, this question and the next are cl osely tied together33.23. What should the military do in space? The answers to this question bring the focus from broad to specific. They jockstrap formulate the functions and missions of a military space force, and provide the framework for establishing detailed force requirements. To summarize, the answers to the question of who establish the pep ups for a military space force development. The answers to the questions of why and what together develop and identify long term direction, and offer short-term input to the imaging allocation process.3424. The next issue is to do with the control of space power. This will mainly emerge from our innovation, imagery and farsightedness. Air Power being the strongest rival of claiming the control of space, there is need to deeply study the relationship between Space power and Air Power. This relationship can be well understood only by defining and studying the relationship between space and Air. Who should lead and develop military space forces? This question addresses the need to focus on purpose the best organization, or mix of organizations, to counsel a military space force. Military space advocates must be able to justifyon military grounds alonethe necessity of military forces in space. These organizations are the stewards that provide both administrative control over the forces that support military space power, and the war- laboring control of these forces during employment of that power. A space force advocate embraces and promotes the ideals for a military space force, and garners the support necessary to establish such a force35.Air and Space relationship25. The defining characteristic of air power is an operational regime elevated above the earths surface. Conceptually, space power would seem to be more of the same at a higher elevation. The term aerospace, coined in the late 1950s, echoes this same theme, as do official pronouncements such as although there are physical differences between the atmosp here and space, there is no absolute boundary between them. The same basic military activities can be performed in each, albeit with different platforms and methods.3826. Conceptually thinking, we cannot easily trim back the enormous differences between operations in the atmosphere and in space? Current military supposition suggests that space is a medium clear and distinct from the atmosphere with physical characteristics extraordinary enough that a bar forms between the two. The atmosphere is a realm of substance offering the advantages of protection from radiation, thermal transfer of heat and the ability to produce and control wind and drag. These aspects of the air medium closelyen it easily different than the realm of space.4027. It is difficult to analyse these and many more issues dealing with space without a general, overarching theory of space power. The task is made even more difficult by some(prenominal) other factors, such as the limited experience base in mi litary space operations, the pie-eyed security classification concerning much of what goes on in space, and the thoroughly sub-divided responsibility for space operations. Thus, we have a conundrum-a jig-saw bunk that will someday figure how space power fits or doesnt fit with air power. Solving the puzzle represents a major leadinghip challenge.42CHAPTER IIIAir and space power is a criticaland decisiveelement in protecting our nation and deterring aggression. It will only remain so if we as professional airmen study, evaluate, and debate our capabilities and the environment of the future. Just as technology and world threat and opportunities change, so must our doctrine. We, each of us, must be the articulate and knowledgeable advocates of air and space power.General Michael E. RyanROLES AND APPLICATIONS OF SPACE POWERVictory smiles upon those who anticipate the changes in the character of war not upon those who wait to adapt themselves subsequently the changes occur.Guilio Douhet1. Man has a compelling actuate to explore, to discover and to try to go where no one has ever been before. As most of the Earth has already been explored and even though it is going to be there for a very long time, men have now turned to space exploration as their next aim.432. Thus as we race into the next decade, a new enclosure seems to be spread up in space with vast potential drop for military, intuition and exploration activities. So far as the armed forces are concerned, like the sensor technology, satellites would provide them with unheard-of capabilities in a large number of fields.444. Today, events unfold before our eyes around the world as if we were there. We have advance warning of adverse weather as it develops. We can communicate with wad 10 or 10,000 miles away with adapted ease, and a small receiver tells us our exact position and how fast we are moving in the air, on land, or at sea.5. Space power is becoming an increasingly important aspect of nat ional strength, but experts disagree about how best to develop its potential. Like airpower, space power relies heavily upon advanced technology, but technology is useless unless space professionals apply it properly. Air Force leaders recognize that the service necessitate to cheer a team of highly dedicated space professionals who are pre-pared to exploit advanced technologies and operating concepts. Today, space power provides supporting functions such as communications, reconnaissance, and signals from global side system (GPS) satellites tomorrow, space may become the site of combat operations. tint about the future direction of military activities in space has spurred debate over which technologies to produce and how best to develop space professionals. Moral, theoretical, and doctrinal questions also sulk large. Underlying all of these considerations are political and diplomatic factors45.6. New technologies melt large amounts of data around the world at the speed of lig ht. Al-though a century ago people would have considered such feats science fiction, modern space capabilities make these, and so many more things, regular(a) facts. Space power has transformed our fiat and our military. Today, at the outset of the twenty-first century, we simply cannot liveor fight and winwithout it.7. Although many people refer to doing Desert hale as the first space war, it did not mark the first use of space capabilities during conflict. During the war in Vietnam, space systemscommunications and meteorological satellitesprovided near-real-time data that was essential for combat operation The Gulf War of 1991, however, was the first conflict in history to make comprehensive use of space systems support. Since then, we have worked hard to integrate the high-tech advantages provided by speed-of-light space capabilities into all our forcesair, land, and sea. Those efforts importantly improved our American enounce way of war, and they paid off during Operation Iraqi Freedom.8. American forces led a coalition that set benchmarks for speed, precision, lethality, reach, and flexibility. As President George W. Bush said on 1 May 2003 aboard the USS Abraham Lincoln, Operation Iraqi Freedom was carried out with a combination of precision and speed and organisation the enemy did not expect, and the world had not seen be-fore. From distant bases or ships at sea, we sent planes and projectiles that could destroy an enemy division, or strike a atomic number 53 bunker. In a calculate of minutesnot hours, days, or weeks as in past warscommanders place and engaged targets and received timely battle damage assessment. Lt Gen T. Michael Buzz Moseley, the combine force air component commander, reenforce the role that space capabilities play when he said, The satellites have been just improbably capable . . . supporting conventional surface, naval, special ops and air forces. Theyve made a huge difference for us.9. The need to protect ones own spa ce assets, and if necessary contend those of the bad guy, will equally inevitably move the war in the air into space. The the StatesF already has an F15-borne anti-satellite system. Other potential systems include a co-orbital satellite weaponed with an explosive warhead or anti-satellite mines.- For every foul system deployed, a potential adversary whose finances permit this sort of warfare, would have to field a defensive mechanism. This level of Star Wars may be beyond most nations. But the scope for information operations should not be underestimated in particular against commercial satellites the performance information for which is quickly available on the Internet.4610. supporting Role11. Ocean reconnaissancesatellites can carry side-ways looking radars to enable them to locate ships and take other maritime measurements in all weather, and at all times of the day. Very comminuted satellite radars, using celluloid aperture techniques, may shortly be able to measure t he level of the sea so accurately that they would be able to detect passage of a submarine beneath it in some areas.4712. The most commonly used sensor in satellites is the camera. The photo reconnaissance cameras on satellites are raw to em radiation with a jolt length of between 0.004 mm to 0.007 mm and in the IR region of wave length between 0.3 mm and 3000 mm.4813. Photo reconnaissancesatellites are the most important of reconnaissance satellites especially during heartsease time, and for monitoring conflicts around the world. Of all the satellites by China, USA and the erstwhile Soviet Union, about 40% have been used for photographic reconnaissance from LEO. Orbiting at altitudes as low as 200 km, some of these photo reconnaissance satellites are thought to resolve details littler than 30 cm.49 The Soviet satellites have a support span of between two weeks and two months. Until the early mid-eighties their pictures were recovered only when the satellite was brought down, u sing re-entry trajectory and parachutes. Since they orbit below 200 km at their lowest point, they need regular boosting from on-board rockets to maintain orbit. It is believed that the digital film scan and transmission is being used by the Russians now. In comparison the American LEO satellites have longer vitality spans than those of their Soviet counter-part. They are known to have been in orbit for some(prenominal) months and can return film capsules to earth by ejecting them over sea (near Hawaii). These are either caught by aircraft or picked up by a back up ship. Photographs can also be developed and scanned on board the satellite and the information relayed back to ground stations immediately by use of tuner signals.14. Early warning satellitesare equipped with infra-red detectors which can detect an ICBM, thereby providing the threatened country with a 30 minute warning. The United States has cardinal geostationary early warning abnegation Support Programme (DSP) sate llites. matchless watches the Russian ICBM fields, and the other two the Pacific and Atlantic oceans for SLBM attacks. For geographic reasons, GEO was less attractive to the Soviet Union, and hence they launched their early warning satellites in Molniya orbits. Complete coverage was obtained by a constellation of nine satellites, with shorter life spans than their American counter-parts. By ensuring the virtual impossibility of a surprise projectile attack out of the blue, early warning satellites may be regarded as playing a stabilising role during peace time15. These satellites have a dual character since during peace time they can help monitor the Limited Test discard and Non-Proliferation Treaties by watch for above ground nuclear tests. The Unites States launched half dozen successive pairs of super-synchronous Vela satellites for this purpose between 1963 and 1970. Designed at firs to operate for only six months, the first ternion pairs exceeded this limit by enormous m argins, very much working for nearly than 10 years.16.Active Military ApplicationSpace can be delimit as the new battlefield after Land, Sea and Air. It is the final frontier or final goal, which every one desires to conquer or reach. Space is fast emerging as not only the new sparing High Ground but also as the new military frontier of becoming a new Strategic High Ground.5017. By the end of 1999, at least 2300 military oriented satellites have been launched. The functions of military satellites, which constitute about 75% of all satellites orbited, ranged from navigation, communications, meteorological and reconnaissance51. Space ground Lasers for Ballistic Missile Defense18. fill in utilizing space-based optical masers (SBLs) for ballistic missile defense (BMD) arose when two facts emerged. First, ballistic missiles are relatively fragile and do not resist laser null and secondly, chemical lasers could project missile killing amounts of push button over 3,000 kilometers. These two facts peaked political interest over the possibility of placing laser weapons in space. SBLs could be used to bug ballistic missiles in their boost phase, thus dropping disabled missiles on an enemys own territory.19. The Lethality of A Space-Based Laser20. Delivering a high- fervor laser beam for a long enough time to disable a target is the objective of a laser weapon. Laser energy can damage missile boosters if the laser has a moderate intensity combined with a uphold hover time on the booster, the laser will then can through the missile skin. A 10 meter mirror with a hydrogen fluoride (HF) laser beam would military issue a 0.32 micro radian divergence angle and have a laser spot 1.3 meters in diameter at a range of 4,000 meters. The distribution of 20 MW over the laser spot would create an energy flux of 1.5 kilowatts per square curium (kW/cm2). The laser spot would need to dwell on the target for 6.6 seconds to create the nominal lethal energy of 10 kilojoule s per square centimeter (kJ/cm2).56 cleverness deeper than this would not be required since the laser would not be in a position to attack missiles in flight until they had reached this altitude. Also, clouds could obscure the booster below a ceiling of 10 kilometers.Table 1 Requirements for several laser weapons ASAT SpaceASAT GroundSpace-based BMDLaser typechem (HF)chem (DF)chem (HF)Laser wavelength2.7m3.8m2.7mLaser locationspacegroundspaceTarget distance3,000km10km3,0Space Power as Force MultiplierSpace Power as Force MultiplierCHAPTER IINTRODUCTION1. The Space has always been a great matter of interest to human race, which gazed and tried to explore this cosmic world for thousands of years. Even our own epics talk a lot about space and its utilisation. However, Science flourished during the European Renaissance and fundamental physical laws governing planetary motion were discovered, and the orbits of the planets around the Sun were calculated. The Chinese were the first to de velop a rocket in around 1212 AD. In 1883, a Russian schoolmaster, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, first explained the mechanics of how a rocket could fly into space.4. Since then exploration and exploitation of the space has been a continued effort. This led to the unfolding of mysteries of the space world and thus using it for own advantages.2. Military use of space started with the launch of an American reconnaissance satellite in 1960.6.3. The phenomenal utilization and exploitation of the space medium has finally provided the users the power to gain advantage over the enemy. Traditionally, power has been related to explosive ordinance and target destruction. But in the post-Cold War world, the power most often delivered by airmen has taken the form of humanitarian aid food, medical supplies, and heavy equipment.8. The meteorological satellites provide accurate weather data from any part of the world. Thus in past few years, space-based systems have enabled dramatic improvement in milit ary and intelligence operations thus enhancing its capability, accuracy and fire power. Thus the Space medium emerging as Space Power and the most effective and widely used force multiplier.METHODOLOGYStatement Of Problem4. To study and analyse the feasibility of Space Power to evolve as a frontline force multiplier for India and to critically examine the road ahead.Justification Of Study5. Indias achievement in the field of space capability may not seem to be very advanced especially when compared with the accomplishments of the superpowers and elite members of the satellite club. However, one needs to look at the Indian space programme in isolation to fully understand the tremendous progress and achievements that have been made from such a humble beginning.6. All the countries have developed launch vehicles as an offshoot of their ballistic missile projects, and their satellites were primarily intended for military use. Non- military applications were a spinoff of the military pro grammes, whereas India has developed space applications and launch vehicles for totally civilian use. The technology was also used within a broader framework to achieve socio-economic development, and military spin-offs have been incidental. Therefore, India has an inherent advantage as far as civilian support role is concerned however it needs special effort and attitude to develop military support application. Utilization of Space medium and Control of space based assets will be an important ingredient of future world power. President APJ Kalam has stated that accomplishments in space have traditionally been a barometer of international status, technological prowess and enhanced military capability. Rapid advancements in Information Technology, Internet and Communications are increasingly utilising space based assets. These assets play a decisive role in shaping the outcome of conflicts and are engines that drive economic growths. India and China are likely to be the economic powe rhouses of the 21st Century. India is also emerging as a key balancer of Asian stability. By its combined military and space technology, India would be required to contain regional conflicts and prevent unscrupulous exploitation of the Indian Ocean region9. Therefore development of space power both for military and civilian use, especially as a force multiplier is must to climb up the pyramid of world power.7. Perceptions determine actions. The militarys perception of the air and space environment influences the type of space forces it will develop in the future10. Therefore we need to decide the kind of space force which we need to develop to exploit Space medium to the maximum as a force multiplier to maintain edge in the region.Scope8. This study analyses the exploitation of Space Force as a force multiplier in the Indian Context.Methods Of Data Collection9. The information and data for this dissertation has been gathered through internet, various books, papers, journals and news papers. In addition, lectures delivered by dignitaries at DSSC have been utilised to gather information. The bibliography of sources is appended at the end of the dissertation.Organisation Of The Dissertation10. It is proposed to study the subject in the following manner-(a) Chapter I Introduction and Methodology.(b) Chapter II Understanding Space power.(c) Chapter III Roles and Application of Space Power.(d) Chapter IV Space Power as Force Multiplier.(e) Chapter V Indian Capability and the Road Ahead.(f) Chapter VI Recommendations and Conclusion.CHAPTER IIUNDERSTANDING SPACE POWERThe beginning of wisdom is calling things by their right names.Confucius1. Space has fascinated many thinkers, philosophers and Air Warriors equally for a long time. Many a researches and money has gone in exploring and exploiting space but still the concepts are not very clear to many of us. It is extremely important for us to have clear understanding of space before we can evaluate the role and utilizat ion of space medium.Definitions2. SpaceSpace is void of substance, offers no protection from harmful radiation, and allows only the balance between thrust and gravity with which to maneuver.143. Escape VelocitySatellites maintain orbit around a planet (Earth in our case) at a particular speed at a given height. If the speed is increased, the satellite goes into a higher orbit. Escape velocity is the speed at which the centrifugal force becomes greater than the pull of planetary gravity. The object would then cease to be an Earth-satellite, and start moving away from the earth. At 500 km the escape velocity is 10.8 km/sec.154. Satellite InclinationEvery satellite orbits within a plane that passes through Earths gravitational centre. The angle formed between that plane and that of the Earths equator, measured on its north bound pass over the equator, is known as satellite inclination. Orbits with inclination at or closer to 90 degrees are known as polar orbits. Equatorial orbits are t hose in or very close to the plane of the equator. The rest, between these two limits, are inclined orbits. The combination of the satellites own motion and that of the rotating planet beneath produces a ground track joining the successive points on the planet which fall directly beneath the satellite. The surface area of the planet in line-of-sight or direct communication with any satellite is a function of its altitude and ground track. In the lowest feasible orbits, the area that can be seen by satellite sensors is no more than that of one of Earths larger cities.5. DecayWith a perfectly spherical planet of even density, no air resistance, and no minute gravitational pulls from neighbouring bodies (such as Sun, the Moon, and the other planets), a satellite would stay in orbit forever. In the real world these factors upset the balance of forces which sustains the orbit, which causes it to decay, so that the satellite eventually falls to the Earth. For practical purposes, satellite s which go below 300 km encounter air resistance serious enough to require intermittent use of on-board boosters to maintain their orbits.166. Low Earth Orbit (LEO).This orbit ranges from a height of 200 and 5000 km. Polar and highly inclined orbits are favoured for general reconnaissance missions since they give planet-wide coverage. The periods of such range between 90 minutes and a few hours.7. Semi-synchronous Orbit.This is circular orbit at 20,700 km with a period of 12 hours. The term is sometimes extended to all orbits between LEO and this orbit.8. Molniya Orbit.This is a highly elliptical orbit, at an altitude of between 500 40000 km, with a 12 hour period. This orbit is most stable at an inclination of 63 degrees. (At other inclinations gravitational anomalies resulting from irregularities in the shape and density of the planet cause the major axis of such an orbit the line joining the apogee and the perigee points to rotate inconveniently.) This orbit was used by the So viet Union to provide satellite spending 11 hours out of 12 hours above the northern hemisphere.179. Geostationary Orbit (GEO).This is a circular, equatorial orbit at an altitude of 35,700 km. With a period of 24 hours, such satellites appear to remain almost stationary above a fixed point over the equator. In practice, they sometimes describe a very small figure of eight ground tracks about such a point. Three or more evenly spaced geostationary satellites can cover most of the planet, except the Polar Regions. These satellites are mainly used for communications or early warning of missiles.10. Geosynchronous Orbit.This orbit is also circular and inclined and is at an altitude of 35,700 km. This orbit has little military or other uses because of its large figure of eight ground tracks, depending on its inclination. In military discussions the term geostationary, is tending to be replaced by geosynchronous, because the former is the limiting case of the latter. Even a small inclinat ion causes a geostationary satellite to become a strictly speaking geosynchronous one. Military geostationary satellites may sometimes have a use for such a ground track, though seldom for the much wider, true geosynchronous orbit.1811. Super-synchronous Orbit.The orbits above GEO have had little use so far, but offer many options for future military satellites taking refuge from ground based or LEO anti-satellites. Certain points of equilibrium between solar, lunar and terrestrial gravitation are especially interesting.1912. Near-Earth Orbit (NEO)or aerospace extends 50 to 200 kilometers above the Earths surface, incorporating the mesosphere and the lower edge of the ionosphere in an intermediate region where aerodynamics and ballistics interact or succeed each other. In the short term, NEO will remain the primary location for the deployment of manned and unmanned military systems and probable major space industrialization facilities such as a manned space operations center (SOC)22 .13. The cislunar zoneconsists of all space between NEO and Lunar Surface Orbit (LSO), including Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO). The cislunar zone provides military systems situated here the defensive option of a longer reaction time to implement countermeasures against Earth- or NEO-based intervention23.14. LSOconsists of the zone of space where the Moon orbits the Earth, including Near Lunar Orbit (NLO) or the space immediately surrounding the Moon.15. The translunar zoneis comprised of the space from LSO to approximately one million kilometers from the Earths surface, where the solar gravity well begins to predominate and includes the five Lagrangian points. These final zones will attain increasing military significance as the process of space industrialization evolves. Eventually the Moon and Lagrangian points could be used to dominate the entire Earth-Moon system.2416. Outer SpaceIn the denomination of legal material dealing with the space exploration and nearly the entire sp ace law, the term outer space is commonly used. But this term has not been defined to date with precision despite many attempts undertaken by jurists, International non-governmental and the United Nations bodies26.17. The tactical space environmentThe tactical space environment of the Earth-Moon system can be conceptualized as a series of gravity well zones that are somewhat analogous to terrestrial hills, promontories, and mountains in that much effort and energy must be initially expended to situate forces in such locations. Once attained, however, these positions can be used to dominate the terrain below with relative ease. Figure 1 illustrates in two-dimensional form the gravity well zones of the Earth-Moon system, which are in reality three dimensional spheres27.18. During the next two decades, military space activities and the development of various commercial space enterprises (or space industrialization) will be primarily restricted to this system. Possible military missions in this tactical environment include direct intervention on the Earths surface form space, regulation of the flow of space traffic, protection of military and industrial space facilities, denial of strategic areas of space to others (such as choice satellite orbits at Geosynchronous Earth Orbit and the various Lagrangian points at which objects revolve with the same period as the gravitational Earth-Moon system and thus remain effectively stationary), and various surveillance, reconnaissance, navigation, command, control, and communication functions28.CLICH ABOUT SPACE POWER19. The space power being the latest addition to the force of a Nation, there is still a huge dilemma about its placement, its use whether military or civilian and also its control. Currently, a fully developed space power theory does not exist. USSPACECOM, recognizing the void, has commissioned Dr. Brian R. Sullivan as lead author to develop this theory.29 Therefore there is requirement to develop a fully fledg ed theory and doctrine to guide the developed of space power straight from its infancy.20. Space is the next great arena for exploration and exploitation. We are limited only by imagination to the wonders, challenges and excitement the next century will bring as far as space forces are concerned. Already, civil and commercial sectors have invested billions of dollars in space and the nations military recognizes its role to protect these interests. The debate within the military on how to best exploit this new medium continues. But there is a need to go over few of the basic issues about Space Power to understand it clearly. The militarys current view of the air and space environment seems to simultaneously focus on opposing relationships between the two mediums. Air and space represent two distinct realms and at the same time, they are difficult to separate because of their similarities. These two relationships exist simultaneously and come together to form the following organizatio nal paradigm of the air and space environment Space and the atmosphere represent two distinct medium environments physically different from each other while at the same time, they are physically linked, and theoretically and historically tied.31.21. First of the issue, is regarding direct use of space as a Space power or weaponising of space to use it as a force itself. We must determine whether space power apply great power quickly to any tangible target on the planet? Many people would answer no to this question because of political restraints on weaponising space. Others would argue for an affirmative answer based on technical, if not political, feasibility. In either case, the question concerning the applicability of the essence remains assumed but undemonstrated. Or perhaps there exists a space power version of the essence that differs from all other military operations, including air power32. Also there are concerns regarding the future of space power and the kinds of military operations that are likely to migrate to space. Space may become another battle space, or it may become only a home to military operations focussed on non-lethal activities in support of combat elsewhere. So the major concern is whether space will be used as direct source of force or will continued to be used as a force multiplier only.22. Why does the military need a space force? The answers to this question shape military space force development by providing a sense of long-term direction, describing how such a force would serve national interests, and prescribing a force structure to fulfill that need. They are foundational answers that ultimately form the basis for space power theory and enable the military to articulate and justify reasons for a military space force. As the military more clearly articulates why space forces are needed, the better it is able to identify specific requirements necessary to achieve those forces. Thus, this question and the next are closely tied to gether33.23. What should the military do in space? The answers to this question bring the focus from broad to specific. They help formulate the functions and missions of a military space force, and provide the framework for establishing detailed force requirements. To summarize, the answers to the question of who establish the advocates for a military space force development. The answers to the questions of why and what together develop and identify long term direction, and offer short-term input to the resource allocation process.3424. The next issue is to do with the control of space power. This will mainly emerge from our innovation, imagination and farsightedness. Air Power being the strongest contender of claiming the control of space, there is need to deeply study the relationship between Space power and Air Power. This relationship can be well understood only by defining and studying the relationship between space and Air. Who should lead and develop military space forces? Th is question addresses the need to focus on finding the best organization, or mix of organizations, to advocate a military space force. Military space advocates must be able to justifyon military grounds alonethe necessity of military forces in space. These organizations are the stewards that provide both administrative control over the forces that support military space power, and the war-fighting control of these forces during employment of that power. A space force advocate embraces and promotes the ideals for a military space force, and garners the support necessary to establish such a force35.Air and Space relationship25. The defining characteristic of air power is an operational regime elevated above the earths surface. Conceptually, space power would seem to be more of the same at a higher elevation. The term aerospace, coined in the late 1950s, echoes this same theme, as do official pronouncements such as although there are physical differences between the atmosphere and spac e, there is no absolute boundary between them. The same basic military activities can be performed in each, albeit with different platforms and methods.3826. Conceptually thinking, we cannot easily ignore the vast differences between operations in the atmosphere and in space? Current military thought suggests that space is a medium separate and distinct from the atmosphere with physical characteristics unique enough that a barrier forms between the two. The atmosphere is a realm of substance offering the advantages of protection from radiation, thermal transfer of heat and the ability to produce and control lift and drag. These aspects of the air medium make it considerably different than the realm of space.4027. It is difficult to analyse these and many more issues dealing with space without a general, overarching theory of space power. The task is made even more difficult by several other factors, such as the limited experience base in military space operations, the tight security classification concerning much of what goes on in space, and the thoroughly sub-divided responsibility for space operations. Thus, we have a conundrum-a jig-saw puzzle that will someday picture how space power fits or doesnt fit with air power. Solving the puzzle represents a major leadership challenge.42CHAPTER IIIAir and space power is a criticaland decisiveelement in protecting our nation and deterring aggression. It will only remain so if we as professional airmen study, evaluate, and debate our capabilities and the environment of the future. Just as technology and world threat and opportunities change, so must our doctrine. We, each of us, must be the articulate and knowledgeable advocates of air and space power.General Michael E. RyanROLES AND APPLICATIONS OF SPACE POWERVictory smiles upon those who anticipate the changes in the character of war not upon those who wait to adapt themselves after the changes occur.Guilio Douhet1. Man has a compelling urge to explore, to discov er and to try to go where no one has ever been before. As most of the Earth has already been explored and even though it is going to be there for a very long time, men have now turned to space exploration as their next objective.432. Thus as we race into the next decade, a new frontier seems to be opening up in space with vast potential for military, science and exploration activities. So far as the armed forces are concerned, like the sensor technology, satellites would provide them with unheard-of capabilities in a large number of fields.444. Today, events unfold before our eyes around the world as if we were there. We have advance warning of adverse weather as it develops. We can communicate with people 10 or 10,000 miles away with equal ease, and a small receiver tells us our exact position and how fast we are moving in the air, on land, or at sea.5. Space power is becoming an increasingly important aspect of national strength, but experts disagree about how best to develop its potential. Like airpower, space power relies heavily upon advanced technology, but technology is useless unless space professionals apply it properly. Air Force leaders recognize that the service needs to nurture a team of highly dedicated space professionals who are pre-pared to exploit advanced technologies and operating concepts. Today, space power provides supporting functions such as communications, reconnaissance, and signals from global positioning system (GPS) satellites tomorrow, space may become the site of combat operations. Concern about the future direction of military activities in space has spurred debate over which technologies to produce and how best to develop space professionals. Moral, theoretical, and doctrinal questions also loom large. Underlying all of these considerations are political and diplomatic factors45.6. New technologies move large amounts of data around the world at the speed of light. Al-though a century ago people would have considered such feats science fiction, modern space capabilities make these, and so many more things, unquestionable facts. Space power has transformed our society and our military. Today, at the outset of the twenty-first century, we simply cannot liveor fight and winwithout it.7. Although many people refer to Operation Desert Storm as the first space war, it did not mark the first use of space capabilities during conflict. During the war in Vietnam, space systemscommunications and meteorological satellitesprovided near-real-time data that was essential for combat operation The Gulf War of 1991, however, was the first conflict in history to make comprehensive use of space systems support. Since then, we have worked hard to integrate the high-tech advantages provided by speed-of-light space capabilities into all our forcesair, land, and sea. Those efforts significantly improved our American joint way of war, and they paid off during Operation Iraqi Freedom.8. American forces led a coalition that set ben chmarks for speed, precision, lethality, reach, and flexibility. As President George W. Bush said on 1 May 2003 aboard the USS Abraham Lincoln, Operation Iraqi Freedom was carried out with a combination of precision and speed and boldness the enemy did not expect, and the world had not seen be-fore. From distant bases or ships at sea, we sent planes and missiles that could destroy an enemy division, or strike a single bunker. In a matter of minutesnot hours, days, or weeks as in past warscommanders identified and engaged targets and received timely battle damage assessment. Lt Gen T. Michael Buzz Moseley, the combined force air component commander, reinforced the role that space capabilities played when he said, The satellites have been just unbelievably capable . . . supporting conventional surface, naval, special ops and air forces. Theyve made a huge difference for us.9. The need to protect ones own space assets, and if necessary attack those of the bad guy, will equally inevitab ly move the war in the air into space. The USAF already has an F15-borne anti-satellite system. Other potential systems include a co-orbital satellite equipped with an explosive warhead or anti-satellite mines.- For every offensive system deployed, a potential adversary whose finances permit this sort of warfare, would have to field a defensive mechanism. This level of Star Wars may be beyond most nations. But the scope for information operations should not be underestimated particularly against commercial satellites the performance information for which is readily available on the Internet.4610. Supporting Role11. Ocean reconnaissancesatellites can carry side-ways looking radars to enable them to locate ships and take other maritime measurements in all weather, and at all times of the day. Very precise satellite radars, using synthetic aperture techniques, may shortly be able to measure the level of the sea so accurately that they would be able to detect passage of a submarine ben eath it in some areas.4712. The most commonly used sensor in satellites is the camera. The photo reconnaissance cameras on satellites are sensitive to em radiation with a wave length of between 0.004 mm to 0.007 mm and in the IR region of wave length between 0.3 mm and 3000 mm.4813. Photo reconnaissancesatellites are the most important of reconnaissance satellites especially during peace time, and for monitoring conflicts around the world. Of all the satellites by China, USA and the erstwhile Soviet Union, about 40% have been used for photographic reconnaissance from LEO. Orbiting at altitudes as low as 200 km, some of these photo reconnaissance satellites are thought to resolve details smaller than 30 cm.49 The Soviet satellites have a life span of between two weeks and two months. Until the early eighties their films were recovered only when the satellite was brought down, using re-entry trajectory and parachutes. Since they orbit below 200 km at their lowest point, they need regu lar boosting from on-board rockets to maintain orbit. It is believed that the digital film scanning and transmission is being used by the Russians now. In comparison the American LEO satellites have longer life spans than those of their Soviet counter-part. They are known to have been in orbit for several months and can return film capsules to earth by ejecting them over sea (near Hawaii). These are either caught by aircraft or picked up by a back up ship. Photographs can also be developed and scanned on board the satellite and the information relayed back to ground stations immediately by use of radio signals.14. Early warning satellitesare equipped with infra-red detectors which can detect an ICBM, thereby providing the threatened country with a 30 minute warning. The United States has three geostationary early warning Defence Support Programme (DSP) satellites. One watches the Russian ICBM fields, and the other two the Pacific and Atlantic oceans for SLBM attacks. For geographica l reasons, GEO was less attractive to the Soviet Union, and therefore they launched their early warning satellites in Molniya orbits. Complete coverage was obtained by a constellation of nine satellites, with shorter life spans than their American counter-parts. By ensuring the virtual impossibility of a surprise missile attack out of the blue, early warning satellites may be regarded as playing a stabilising role during peace time15. These satellites have a dual character since during peace time they can help monitor the Limited Test Ban and Non-Proliferation Treaties by watching for above ground nuclear tests. The Unites States launched six successive pairs of super-synchronous Vela satellites for this purpose between 1963 and 1970. Designed at firs to operate for only six months, the first three pairs exceeded this limit by enormous margins, often working for nearly than 10 years.16.Active Military ApplicationSpace can be defined as the new battlefield after Land, Sea and Air. It is the final frontier or final goal, which every one desires to conquer or reach. Space is fast emerging as not only the new Economic High Ground but also as the new military frontier of becoming a new Strategic High Ground.5017. By the end of 1999, at least 2300 military oriented satellites have been launched. The functions of military satellites, which constitute about 75% of all satellites orbited, ranged from navigation, communications, meteorological and reconnaissance51. Space Based Lasers for Ballistic Missile Defense18. Interest in utilizing space-based lasers (SBLs) for ballistic missile defense (BMD) arose when two facts emerged. First, ballistic missiles are relatively fragile and do not resist laser energy and secondly, chemical lasers could project missile killing amounts of energy over 3,000 kilometers. These two facts peaked political interest over the possibility of placing laser weapons in space. SBLs could be used to intercept ballistic missiles in their boost pha se, thus dropping disabled missiles on an enemys own territory.19. The Lethality of A Space-Based Laser20. Delivering a high-intensity laser beam for a long enough time to disable a target is the objective of a laser weapon. Laser energy can damage missile boosters if the laser has a moderate intensity combined with a sustained dwell time on the booster, the laser will then burn through the missile skin. A 10 meter mirror with a hydrogen fluoride (HF) laser beam would yield a 0.32 micro radian divergence angle and create a laser spot 1.3 meters in diameter at a range of 4,000 meters. The distribution of 20 MW over the laser spot would create an energy flux of 1.5 kilowatts per square centimeter (kW/cm2). The laser spot would need to dwell on the target for 6.6 seconds to create the nominal lethal energy of 10 kilojoules per square centimeter (kJ/cm2).56 Penetration deeper than this would not be required since the laser would not be in a position to attack missiles in flight until th ey had reached this altitude. Also, clouds could obscure the booster below a ceiling of 10 kilometers.Table 1 Requirements for several laser weaponsASAT SpaceASAT GroundSpace-based BMDLaser typechem (HF)chem (DF)chem (HF)Laser wavelength2.7m3.8m2.7mLaser locationspacegroundspaceTarget distance3,000km10km3,0